Byzantine times: The effect on women

Byzantine times: The effect on women An average woman in the fifth and sixth centuries of the Byzantine Empire did not have a big role in public society.  [1]  In fact, it was common for her to not be seen in public at all. It was standard for Byzantine women to get married around twelve to thirteen years old due to an arranged marriage chosen by her parents. Once married she spent most of her time at home. Occasionally a woman was allowed to leave her home to attend to church, festivals, marriages, births, visit relations, or go to public baths. These were the only activities in society acceptable where a woman could to leave her house.  [2]  However, if a woman must venture outside, she must have her face covered by a veil at all times and be accompanied by a man. Though veils were rarely shown in Byzantine artwork, this was a social standard for women. The wearing of veils often represented the difference between an honest women and a prostitute.  [3]   Even in her own home, a Byzantine woman had to endure gender inequalities. During meals she was not allowed to dine with men foreign of her relations. More often than not, she would be eating alone separate from men.  [4]  For her education, she was taught skills only useful for a house wife. If a woman was in middle to upper class, she was usually taught to read, write, and sing.  [5]  Women of royalty however, were given the opportunity to study medicine and natural sciences with scholars in their courts.  [6]  Nevertheless education was usually second quality compared to the education given to men. Women could easily be described as cloistered as prisoners, though her prison walls were only the invisible judgments and rules cast by society.  [7]   Most women could not participate in politics. A woman could not even testify in court for fear that her testimonial would be easily influenced by her husband or brother. It is only in rare cases where a man was not involved that a woman could testify.  [8]  Despite what little influence and respect women had in public society, through home life a woman could still easily influence her own husband, sons, brothers, and other male relations in her home life.  [9]  This influence could be subtle in a small Byzantine family or extremely considerable if she was the wife of the emperor. Unlike men who could rise up to a political position through military, or the church, for a women to gain political power she had either be born or marry into aristocracy. Born in 399 A.D, Empress Pulcheria was the eldest daughter of Emperor Arcadius.  [10]  She was a devoted Christian that paved her way into power through her influence over her younger brother Theodosios II. She eventually received the title of Augusta (Empress) which was the highest position a woman of relation to the Emperor could aspire to.  [11]  Pulcheria was just two years older than Theodosios II but had a great influence over him all his life. Though Pulcheria was the eldest born into royalty, she did not have much power as she would if she had been born male. Even with this gender disadvantage, she was extremely intelligent. At the age of 16, she swore a vow of chastity and also influenced her younger sisters to do the same.  [12]  This was a way to sustain power that would be lost if she was forced into marriage as well as stop the competition to her brothers throne.  [13]  The reasoning she gave for her actions was due to her Christian fate, comparing the Vi rgin Mary as her heavenly counterpart.  [14]  Figure 1 depicts an ivory relief known as The Translation of Relics Ivory dating around the year 420 A.D.  [15]  and was acquired by the Trier Cathedral in 1844.  [16]  The carving measure 13.1 x 26.1 x 2.3 cm and has been cut to a depth of 2 cm  [17]  . The Byzantines loved ivory and usually imported it from India and Africa. The ivory of this specific piece has been speculated to have been imported from Africa do to its larger size.  [18]  The Translation of Relics Ivory depicts a procession of people in the streets followed by two priests riding a chariot pulled by mules. Leading this procession is an Emperor holding a candle and ready to receive the relics is an Empress holding a cross in front of church doors. In the background are onlookers cheering waving incense and a church which is still under construction, still being complete for the relics to be place into. For many years, the protagonists in this relief have been unidentifiable. Historians have compared the lives of Justin II, Maurice, and Phocas and their wives but found no historical evidence which relates them to this scene.  [19]  In the late 70s, The Translation of Relics Ivory has been identified by historians, Kenneth G. Holum and Gary Vikan that the characters in this relief are likely Empress Pulcheria, her brother Emperor Theodosios II and the relics given are the bones of Saint Stephen. The historians deducted this from written evidence of a chronicler of the ninth century named Theophanes Confessor. In his narrative he wrote: Under the influence of the blessed Pulcheria, the pious Theodosius sent a rich donation to the archbishop of Jerusalem for distribution to the needy, and also a golden cross studded with precious stones to be erected on Golgotha. In exchange for these gifts, the archbishop dispatched relics of the right arm of Stephen Protomaryr, in the care of St. Passarion [Pulcheria] arose taking her brother with her and went to greet the holy relics. Receiving them into the palace, she founded a splendid chapel for the holy Protomartr, and in it she deposited the holy relics.  [20]   The narrative matched perfectly with the description of The Translation of Relics Ivory as well as another found narrative which proved that the bones of Saint Stephen had in fact appeared outside Jerusalem that time in December 416 and later went under control of the bishop.  [21]  The church under construction is believed to be a church of St. Stephen.  [22]  An interesting detail to The Translation of Relics Ivory is the composition of the piece. The entire focus of the image is on Pulcheria rather than the Emperor Theodosios II, her brother. Even Theodosios relief is still a bit further back than hers, as he is standing right next to her. This is a huge representation of Pulcherias power as she is the center of attention opposed to the Emperor himself. In her lifetime, Pulcheria had commissioned several new churches, most dedicated to her patron saint the Virgin Mary. It was well known that Virgin Mary deeply impacted her life to staying openly celibate for God. However during the fifth century the Virgin Mary was not a major figure in Constantinople.  [23]  Her choice for the Virgin Mary as her patron was not to advance women but simply get rid of the stigma that women were the curse of eve, a curse which claimed that women where responsible for original sin.  [24]  It was also due to Pulcherias influence that the Virgin Mary would be again be known not just as the Mother of Christ (christotokos) but the Mother of God ( theotokos) when the statement was overturned.  [25]  Pulcherias most well-know church to the Virgin Mary is the Church of Saint Mary of Blacherne , which has also been depicted in literature with names such as the Panagia of Blachernae and the Blachernae Monastery. The church started construction in 450 A.D. and was finished by her husband Marcian after Pulcherias death in 453 A.D.  [26]  The church was built around a pre-existing sacred spring called the Ayazma of Blacherne.  [27]  It is also said that Christians of Jerusalem had contributed a robe that belonged to the Virgin Mary as a relic for the church,  [28]  though other sources state that the robe was stolen.  [29]  Figure 2 shows the church before its second fire, and Figure 3 shows the current modern church after being rebuilt. The church focused around images of the Virgin Mary, which led to much destruction of its icons during the reign of Constantine V.  [30]  The church first burnt down in 1070 from a fire but was rebuilt again using its old floor plans.  [31]  The church was completely burnt down yet again in 1434, this time from a careless fire caused by children chasing pigeons on its roofs.  [32]  By the time Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Church of Saint Mary of Blachernae no longer existed and the people of Constantinople had to turn to different mediums for the protection Virgin Marys icons.  [33]   Figure 3 shows Icon of the Virgin Blachernitissa. In 626 A.D., the Blachernitissa was credited for the protecting the city from an Avar attack as well as an Arab siege in 717. Thus this relics reputation grew to be known as a powerful Byzantine talisman of protection and was kept in the Church of Saint Mary of Blachernae.  [34]  Though the figure head of this icon was a woman, it had huge veneration. The term Blachernitissa was a type of representation of the Virgin Mary named after the Church of Saint Mary of Blachernae.  [35]  The icon shows Mary within it and was held in the Church of Saint Mary of Blachernae. The piece was also within the church during its 1434 fire and was thought to be destroyed. It was a talisman that represented the protection of the citys walls.  [36]  Its absence was believed to be the reason why the Ottoman Turks succeeded their invasion only 19 years later. The year 730 was the start of the first iconoclastic period lasing until 787.  [37]  It started with Emperor Leo III, who reigned from 717-740. The Iconoclasts believed that icons where evil and led to the misinterpretation of the Catholic religion. As the Iconoclasts resorted back into symbols and scripture, they tore down icons, thinking them as heresy to their religion. When Leo III died in 740, his son Constantine V continued the ban of during his reign in 741-775.  [38]  It was during Constantine Vs reign, that the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae was attacked by iconoclasts. Constantine V ordered the destruction of the interior mosaics that represented a New Testament cycle and replaced them with vegetal ornaments and pictures of birds.  [39]  It was fortunate however that the Icon of the Virgin Blachernitissa was hidden from destruction at this time. This first Iconoclastic period was stopped by Empress Irene. Irene acted in the name of her son Constatine VI, who was too young to rule at the time. She created and ordered the Second Council of Nicea, which supported Iconophiles.  [40]  As Iconophiles, they believed that images were also representing their religion and they were not wrong in using them. The Council condemned the opposition to icons as heresy. It is through Irenes actions of the revival of icons that she earned the title of Saint in the Greek Orthodox Church. The second iconoclastic period lasted 814-842. This time it was Emperor Leo V (reigning from 813-820) who instated this new wave of iconoclasm. It was speculated that it was to cure the recent military failure. Emperors Michael II and Theophilus who succeeded him were also iconoclasts. However after Theophilus died, he was succeeded by his son Michael III. Michael at the time was too young to reign so his mother Theodora acted as a regent for him. Similar to Irene, Theodora was an iconodule and was able to proclaim the restoration of icons. Now ever since the revival of icons, the first Sunday of Lent is celebrated as the Triumph of Orthodoxy. Figure 4 shows the Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy, a painting that was painted on a wooden panel covered with gesso and linen. Its medium was egg tempera and gold leaf.  [41]  The center of the painting is a portrait of the Virgin Mary, said to be painted by St. Luke. Empress Theodora and her son, Emperor Michael III, appear on the left o f the portrait. On the right are three monks with the Patriarch Methodios. This painting was painted more than 500 years after the end of iconoclasm during the time when the Byzantine Empire was under threat of invasion by the Ottoman Turks.  [42]  Again as it is not usually common for a woman to be in the painting, Empress Theodora is shown next to her son in royal robes. Though she is not next to them, Theodora is shown at the same level as the bishops. In the center of the painting is the Blachernitissa, the Virgin Mary and child. The Virgin Mary was a celebrated icon of her woman status. It is not surprising that Irene and Theodora were iconophiles. Since the average Byzantine woman was housebound for the majority of their lives, most had a special dedication to religious practices involving icons.  [43]  It might be due to their life style that women where the most affected when their precious icons where taken away. The influence women had and their relations to art during the Byzantine Empire shown to be very important. It is through the influence of the empresses Pulcheria, Irene and Theodora that impacted artwork despite a judgmental and men-driven environment that shadowed their lives. It is as fascinating and influential as the works themselves that these women were able to influence the Byzantine public and the artwork. Is Bitcoin the Best Cryptocurrency? Is Bitcoin the Best Cryptocurrency? Is Bitcoin the most practical form of cybercurrency? In 2009, the world was forever changed when an anonymous individual that goes by the name of Satoshi Nakamoto introduced the world to a new form of currency: the bitcoin. A bitcoin is a form of cybercurrency that cannot be traced to the person that purchases them.   Through the introduction of the bitcoin, several other companies have released their form of cybercurrency. These newer currencies range from the â€Å"Litecoin† to the â€Å"Dogecoin†. While bitcoin has been the figurehead of the cyber-coin movement, there are several other notable and more efficient â€Å"altcoins† as they are referred to: the ever popular â€Å"Dogecoin† for the online â€Å"memer† community, the Litecoin, a more efficient version of the Bitcoin, the â€Å"Ripple†, the â€Å"Ethereum† cryptocurrency, and â€Å"Dash† are all widely accepted cryptocurrencies that are taking the world by storm. The Bitcoin was one of the first forms of cryptocurrency that gained notoriety. Bitcoins are not a form of tangible currency; they are not connected to banks in any way, shape or form. There are no transaction fees and no way that a Bitcoin can be traced back to someone that purchases them. Merchants are beginning to accept bitcoins as a new method of payment, ranging from food, trips to the hair salon, and even illegal products on the internet! To acquire a bitcoin, people purchase them on a multitude of cryptocurrency exchange market websites. Transfers are relatively simple; People can easily transfer their bitcoins among each other by using mobile apps or their computers. People are also capable of â€Å"mining† for bitcoins, where individuals solve complex math problems, which is how Bitcoins are made. However, Bitcoins are kind of shady; If an everyday person was to invest in purchasing some Bitcoins, the only thing that protects their cryptocurrency is a Blockchain that you need to enable. This means that virtually anyone that has hacking experience can take that person’s Bitcoins if they do not take the necessary steps to protect them. Granted, the anonymity of Bitcoin transactions and purchases make it somewhat secure, but anyone that solves the complex mathematical equations is probably able to hack into an unsuspecting person’s account.[1] The Bitcoin is one, if not the most popular form of cryptocurrency. However, there are a vast majority of other â€Å"altcoins† that seem to be up-and-coming. Someday, these â€Å"altcoins† may end up surpassing the Bitcoin in terms of use. One of these cryptocurrencies is known as the â€Å"Dogecoin†. The â€Å"Dogecoin† is a growing altcoin in today’s era of cryptocurrencies. The â€Å"Dogecoin† is â€Å"a peer-to-peer digital currency, favored by Shiba Inus worldwide†. It works very similarly to the Bitcoin; however, it has the Doge internet meme as the face of the currency. This altcoin caters to the meming community of the internet, which is how it advertises to its patrons. To sell their altcoins, they advertise that people that use this form of currency are in a tight-knit community, which has a Reddit sub-thread; they also explain that it is seamless to set up an account to transfer and store Dogecoins. The creators of Dogecoin also create a video that explains the origin of this meme-ridden cryptocurrency in a ninety second video, which was incredibly hard to stomach, for a multitude of reasons (I will be sure to provide the link for you somewhere; viewer discretion is advised). This altcoin is for the people of the internet that everyone collectively hates on. However, the currency is efficient, fun, and very similar to the Bitcoin. Although they have a section on their website dedicated to teaching patrons about the origin of doge, it is an ingenious selling point, as most memers just want to belong to something other than Reddit (Can you blame them? That community sucks). The Litecoin is another popular form of cryptocurrency.   Introduced in 2011 by Charles Lee, it is very similar to the Bitcoin; however, it is more practical in terms of security, and speed of transaction. The community of Litecoin also makes a point to stay united; the Litecoin community has also created forums, subreddits, and other networks. Litecoin also has a tab on their website dedicated for resources to the community. The resources tab was intended to allow their community to better understand the Litecoin and other cryptocurrencies and how they compare. Litecoin also utilizes a better form of Blockchain, a service which is considered to be the greatest software platform for digital assets. Wallet encryption is also a feature included in the Litecoin cryptocurrency; Litecoin requires that you provide a password for every transaction you encounter when utilizing the Litecoin. The password feature is useful, as it prevents theft from hacker or people that utilize bots to do t heir dirty work and also makes sure that you are positive that you need to spend your Litecoins. With any cryptocurrency, users are also allowed to mine for Litecoins, as long as they basically know rocket science. While the Litecoin is still up-and-coming, it seems to be quite secure. As of right now, it is the silver to Bitcoin’s gold.[2]   However, with more time and donations, the Litecoin could manage to surpass the success of the Bitcoin. It provides people with a significantly larger amount of coins in the economy, however, this could pose threats for inflation While this may pose a threat in the long run, the use of Litecoins seems to be practical. Overall, Litecoin is a practical and cheaper alternative to invest in, because it is cheaper to purchase and it is safer to utilize due to the use of mandatory passwords. One of the more unique forms of cybercurrency is the â€Å"ripple†. It is a form of cryptocurrency that works to connect of the economies together. The ripple works in tandem with banks. The reason the ripple works with banks is to transform how money is sent across the world, which they feel is a vital step in the advancement of economics, both international and nationally. Their company vision is to enable the â€Å"Internet or Value† to move value as fast as information travels across the internet. Traditionally, two banks would use a third bank as a middle-man to send money to each other. B including the â€Å"ripple solution† to this equation the third bank is eliminated from the process, resulting in a much more efficient system for transactions from bank to bank. The â€Å"ripple solution† also works to convey useful information and messages to both banks. The ILP ledger that the ripple service is run through, works to coordinate fund movements between institutions to settle the payment†[3]. Overall, the ripple system seems to be a practical form of cryptocurrency for everyday use. While it is not ideal for the pesky dark web users that require anonymous currency, it is a much simpler way for foreign transactions to occur, or even people that do not use the same bank to make a transaction. This is also the optimal form of cryptocurrency when dealing with foreign affairs because it is incredible secure; there is complete transaction privacy for each financial institution involved. Most banks do not operate on the same network, especially those in different countries. With the Ripple solution, banks on separate networks can transact directly. There is also an ability to connect traditional and emerging financial networks together, which is immensely useful in the modernizing and integrating of international economics. Another notable form of cryptocurrency is Ethereum. Ethereum was developed in Toronto, Canada by a nineteen-year-old programmer. Vitalik Buterin created Ethereum in 2011, after learning more about Bitcoins and other forms of cryptocurrency. He also created Bitcoin Magazine, an online news website about the cryptocurrency world.[4] Ethereum is one of the newer forms of cryptocurrencies on the market. The Ethereum Foundation has a similar view as the Ripple Foundation. â€Å"While bitcoin aims to disrupt PayPal and online banking, Ethereum has the goal of using a blockchain to replace internet third parties — those that store data, transfer mortgages and keep track of complex financial instruments†[5]. In short, the Ethereum Foundation’s long-term goal is to be a sort of world computer. â€Å"Although the apps appear to be possible, it’s unclear which blockchain applications will actually prove useful, secure, or scalable, and if they will ever be as convenient to use as the apps we use today† [6] The Ethereum Foundation uses a form of currency known as the â€Å"ether†. Ether are unique pieces of code that allow updates to the blockchain’s ledger.[7] The process behind obtaining and holding ether is similar to most forms of cryptocurrencies. First, there are varying levels of security and risks that you can take in the method of storage for ether. The first method is a desktop wallet to store ether. This form of storage requires the user to download a sort of blockchain, known as the â€Å"Ethereum client†-a copy of the entire Ethereum blockchain. The desktop wallet will also need to stay updated with transaction records.[8] The next type of storage is possible through a mobile device, typically a cell phone. The app that caters to the â€Å"light† users of Ethereum is incredibly convenient but equally as risky; light users rely on miners and other people involved in The Ethereum Foundation to verify transactions and secure their ether. If the light users lose their private keys, they will not be able to contact anyone to be able to access their ether, meaning they will ultimately lose all of the money they put into their account.[9] The next form of storage is through hardware. â€Å"These secure devices that can often be detached from the internet, and can sign transactions without being online†, meaning that although it is incredibly secure, this method can be incredibly irritating to deal with if the user is constantly out and about. The last form of storage a patron of the Ethereum Foundation can partake in is paper currency. In this method, the user carefully writes the private key and can securely store it in a deposit box or something similar.[10] While this is the most efficient way to utilize ether, it is also the most difficult method to secure and maintain. But how can users obtain ether? Ether can be purchased in person or on the internet from miners, or other users that desire to have their country’s recognized form of currency, or even other types of cryptocurrency. Unfortunately, if users are looking to purchase ether in person, it should be in a highly-populated area, such as New York City or Toronto in order to find someone that also uses ether; in less populated areas, this is not necessarily an option. While Ethereum is a growing form of cryptocurrency. However, it is not considered to be one of the most secure or efficient. While it could develop to be something incredible, as of right now, the cryptocurrency advocates of the world deem it to be a little over-zealous. Ethereum is definitely on the right track to becoming one of the best forms of cryptocurrencies, but it has a lot of room for improvement. As of right now, J.P. Morgan Chase, Microsoft and Intel have all allied in order to make Ethereum’s goal easier—a â€Å"world computer†. â€Å"Dash† is another one of the most popular forms of cryptocurrency.   Its name conveniently combines the word â€Å"digital† and â€Å"cash† together (which is super nifty right? Names are always so original when their used in business or history.). It was designed for the honest, hardworking nerds out there. These miners that participate in the mining of this cryptocurrency mine for their fair share of Dash coins. However, unique to the Dash coin system, you need special hardware and computers to mine for the coins.[11] Another useful aspect of the Dash coin is that the transactions are allegedly instantaneous. This caters to people that value time. According to Dash coin, Bitcoin takes roughly an hour for the transaction to process. While the Bitcoin is the most popular form of cryptocurrency, it is not the most efficient or practical form of currency in a generalized sense. It is useful for a multitude of reasons: anonymity, for the people that are ashamed with their addiction to My Little Pony collectables, people that are too afraid to meet their drug dealers face-to-face, or those undercover cannibals that so desperately want to try a new body part (Eww. Still can’t wrap my head around this one). However, funds of the patrons that utilize the Bitcoin as their go-to form of cryptocurrency run the risk of it being stolen by hackers. Dogecoin is a light and comical approach for the cryptocurrencies that are becoming a widely popular global phenomenon. While at first it was a joke among the Reddit community, it grew into an ever-popular alternative cryptocurrency to the Bitcoin. While it may not be the most practical form of cryptocurrency. It is a very useful alternative on the steady rise. In time, it may even be able to pass the most popular coin—the Bitcoin. The Ripple Foundation really outdid themselves with their form of cryptocurrency. It is one of the most optimal forms of cryptocurrencies in order to simplify the way people bank with each other. By making Ripple the middleman between the banks, it creates communication and eliminates any ways that banks that transfer money between two banks would eliminate misconceptions or errors. Ethereum is the next most efficient cryptocurrency, although highly unlikely to fully be achieved within the next couple years. While several notable companies have allied with the Ethereum in an effort to expand their company, they have a long way to go in order to achieve their goals to create a â€Å"world computer†. However, the most efficient form of cryptocurrency seems to be the Litecoin. While it is not worth as much as the Bitcoin, it uses faster transaction times. The Litecoin also has a very friendly website. That instantly allows you to access their forums and helpful videos to better understand their cryptocurrency and other forms of cryptocurrencies, as well.   It is also very secure, while still being efficient. There are a multitude of ways to secure your currency, one of them being the useful password feature. Where Bitcoin makes it optional to secure your account, Litecoin makes it mandatory. Bibliography n.d. Bitcoin. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://bitcoin.org/en/. n.d. Blockchain. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.blockchain.com/. n.d. Comparing Bitcoin to Litecoin. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/comparing-litecoin-bitcoin/. corporation, dogecoin. n.d. Dogecoin. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://dogecoin.com/. Foundation, Ripple. n.d. Ripple. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://ripple.com/. Hertig, Alyssa. n.d. How to use Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/how-to-use-ethereum/. —. n.d. What is Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/what-is-ethereum/. —. n.d. Who Created Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/who-created-ethereum/. n.d. How Ethereum Works. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.ethereum.org/. Networks, The Dash. n.d. Dash. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.dash.org. Tal Yellin, Dominic Aratari, Jose Pagliery / CNNMoney. n.d. What is Bitcoin? Accessed May 12, 2017. http://money.cnn.com/infographic/technology/what-is-bitcoin/. 2017. What is a Bitcoin? May 12. http://www.coindesk.com/information/what-is-bitcoin/. n.d. What is the Best Cryptocurrency to Invest in Long Term and Why? Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-best-Cryptocurrency-to-invest-in-long-term-Why. n.d. What is the Litecoin? Accessed May 12, 2017. https://litecoin.org/. >[1] n.d. Bitcoin. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://bitcoin.org/en/. >[2] n.d. Comparing Bitcoin to Litecoin. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/comparing-litecoin-bitcoin/. >[3] Foundation, Ripple. n.d. Ripple. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://ripple.com/. [4] —. n.d. Who Created Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/who-created-ethereum/. >[5] —. n.d. What is Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/what-is-ethereum/. >[6] n.d. How Ethereum Works. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.ethereum.org/. >[7] ibid [8] ibid [9] Hertig, Alyssa. n.d. How to use Ethereum. Accessed May 12, 2017. http://www.coindesk.com/information/how-to-use-ethereum/. [10] ibid [11] Networks, The Dash. n.d. Dash. Accessed May 12, 2017. https://www.dash.org.